Lithium Extraction from Geothermal Brines in the Salton Sea Region; Proponents of High-Speed Rail in America: How They Lay the Tracks

Eighty percent of people worldwide demand their country takes more action against climate change. This pressing issue is the result of greenhouse gas emissions from inefficient land and energy use, as well as a reliance on harmful greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting energy sources for electricity generation and transportation. Electrical power accounts for 25% of direct GHG releases, and transportation 28%, the largest fraction of any economic sector (EPA 2025). Alternative renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power are an enticing solution to the overreliance on fossil fuels, but the intermittent nature of these technologies results in inconsistent implementation. Energy storage through lithium-ion batteries remedies this, allowing for power generated during the day or in windy weather to be released when those sources are absent. As people grow more environmentally conscious, they may also seek electric and hybrid vehicles for personal transportation. The European Union is expected to phase out non-electric vehicles entirely by 2035 (European Commission 2022) These automobiles also require large lithium-ion batteries to function. Lithium demand is expected to grow significantly in the upcoming decades to suit these needs and combat the oncoming threats climate change poses (Brunelli et al. 2023). An alternative solution to the excessive carbon emitted by our transportation sector is a transition to rail transport. High-speed rail results in about 1/5th the carbon emissions of automobiles per passenger-mile, with the technology more efficient throughout its lifespan than even fully electric vehicles (Kamga and Yazici 2014). Many rail companies are expecting to transition to entirely renewable energy sources in coming decades as well. Efficient energy and emissions-saving rail networks have been simulated and confirmed viable (Krishnan et al. 2015). Due to this greatly improved efficiency, high-speed rail is undoubtedly viable for combating climate change.
The technical report details the design and feasibility of converting a geothermal energy plant in the Salton Sea region of Southern California into a brine-based direct lithium extraction (DLE) facility. The proposed plant aims to produce battery-grade lithium carbonate to address the growing demand for lithium driven by its role in electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy storage systems, and consumer electronics. We seek to eliminate environmentally harmful practices like evaporation ponds, offering a sustainable solution to meet increasing lithium demand.
The facility is designed to process brine released by a geothermal plant. The brine undergoes silica pretreatment to ensure compatibility with downstream operations. This report outlines key components of the DLE process, including brine cooling, citrate mixing, adsorption and regeneration, precipitation, separatory units and peroxide removal. Each stage is optimized for thermodynamics, kinetics, material balances, and equipment design to maximize efficiency and achieve high-purity lithium carbonate production. For example, adsorption processes use advanced scheduling strategies like simulated moving beds to enhance lithium recovery rates. Economic analyses demonstrate that the proposed facility is currently not financially viable due to high operating costs. Further design work on citrate recycling and calcium removal is recommended to increase the profitability of the project. Beyond analysis of economic viability, this process prioritizes environmental and social responsibility. A Layer of Protection
Analysis (LOPA) is performed so that safety considerations are thoroughly addressed. In summary, while this process looks to provide a financial and environmentally sustainable solution for lithium production, additional optimization is required to reach commercial feasibility. Continued improvements in reagent recovery, brine pretreatment, and integration with existing geothermal infrastructure are key steps toward making brine-based lithium extraction a scalable and sustainable solution for the future.
The STS research paper covers high-speed rail. High-speed rail is an enticing, environmentally friendly technology with the potential to connect communities across America, bolstering economic growth and diversity. Rail travel causes significantly lower carbon emissions per passenger and complements Americans’ frequent trips between cities and suburbs. However, the country still remains largely car-centric, with most Americans forgoing public transit in favor of personal vehicles. Nonetheless, public and private rail companies and nonprofit organizations continue to promote high-speed passenger rail. How do proponents of high-speed rail in the U.S. advance their agendas? This will be determined through an exploration of the goals, ideas, and values implemented by these interest groups and evaluating how they relate to one another. Each group has an explicit goal, for which they create an idea, with which they appeal to public values. I will analyze whether these values align with public opinion and the effectiveness of these group’s agendas. Some relevant groups include Amtrak, the national rail company that operates the only US high-speed rail line, Brightline, a private rail company operating in Florida, and the High Speed Rail Alliance, a nonprofit that promotes rail development through advocacy to the government.
Working on these projects simultaneously has forced me to ask questions about feasibility and planning behind transportation infrastructure. Conveniently, southern California is a site for both high-speed rail development and lithium brine mining. In order for these technologies to be effective at reducing emissions or making a profit, there must exist appropriate resources. Geothermal plants may need to provide electricity to trains when wind and solar cannot, there must be trade lines to carry lithium from the plant, there must be overhead wires to power trains. In this way, the projects complement each other, as the lithium project provides a solution for continuous power in the region and high-speed rail a means of transport for workers and products. These simultaneous projects taught me to consider engineering effects on both a technical and social level, and how technical work may have major social implications that must match public climate to be economically viable and effective

School of Engineering and Applied Science

Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Technical Advisor: Eric Anderson

STS Advisor: Bryn Seabrook

Technical Team Members: Ian Forrer, Jasper Bennett, Mia Park, Nicholas Goldstein