Abstract
The scanning and mapping of subterranean systems and resources represents a rapidly evolving challenge with growing technical and societal implications. For centuries, human access to underground spaces was limited by rudimentary tools and incomplete knowledge, but recent advances in subsurface imaging, such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR), LiDAR, and 3D modeling, have expanded the ability to detect and visualize what lies beneath the surface. These technologies now enable detailed mapping of caves, tunnels, utilities, and natural resources, supporting a wide range of projects, like urban infrastructure or mineral exploration.
However, as the capability to scan and map underground environments increases, so do the complexities surrounding how this data is used and governed. Subterranean spaces are often shared, contested, or legally ambiguous; different actors—governments, corporations, landowners, and communities—may hold conflicting claims to what exists below ground. Additionally, new mapping technologies raise concerns about data accuracy, privacy, and equitable access to knowledge about these hidden systems. While technical solutions promise greater clarity and control over subsurface environments, they also bring ethical and legal challenges that are not yet fully addressed in current regulatory frameworks.
My technical project developed a three-dimensional (3D) volumetric display system designed to assist with the visualization of subterranean environments, particularly cave systems. The motivation behind the project stemmed from the growing use of 3D scans for cave exploration and the lack of intuitive tools for displaying such complex data. Current display systems often rely on flat, 2D screens, which limit spatial comprehension. This project addressed that gap by building a volumetric display capable of rendering 3D point cloud data in real space. My team designed a software pipeline using the trimesh Python library to process 3D scan files, extract volumetric data, and prepare it for display. The hardware side focused on designing a rotating LED matrix controlled by a microcontroller to generate persistence-of-vision based 3D images. Initial results showed that simple geometric shapes and small cave segments could be successfully rendered within the volumetric display, supporting basic navigation and orientation tasks. While limitations in resolution and interactivity remain an issue, the project demonstrates the feasibility and utility of a portable, immersive display for use in field planning and cave mapping. The system offers a more intuitive way to understand spatial relationships within complex underground systems and could be extended to other subsurface applications such as mining or tunnel inspection.
The STS research project investigates how emerging subsurface scanning technologies are reshaping legal and ethical frameworks surrounding underground resource ownership. The central research question asks: How do new technologies for scanning subterranean environments affect the way property rights and ownership claims are defined and contested? Drawing on historical examples of mineral claims, legal disputes over groundwater, and modern conflicts around urban underground infrastructure, the paper argues that technologies such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and 3D subsurface modeling challenge existing legal doctrines based on vertical land ownership and exclusive access. Actor-network theory and co-production theory frame the analysis, showing how legal and technical systems co-evolve. Evidence includes legal statutes, court rulings, and case studies in the U.S. and abroad where subterranean data either empowered or undermined ownership claims. The paper concludes that scanning technologies reveal previously unseen or unclaimed resources, often sparking disputes over who has the right to exploit or manage them. In doing so, these tools don't just uncover the underground—they actively shape what is perceived as ownable. As scanning methods become more precise and accessible, societies will need new ethical and legal norms to handle the increasing visibility and value of subsurface spaces.
Both the technical and STS projects offered valuable insight into the challenges and opportunities in subterranean scanning and mapping. While the technical project successfully demonstrated a proof-of-concept volumetric display for visualizing 3D cave scans, it also revealed hardware and resolution limitations that constrained its broader functionality. Nonetheless, the system validated the concept that immersive 3D representations can improve spatial understanding of underground systems, especially for planning and navigation. Future researchers could enhance the system by increasing LED resolution, exploring alternative display mechanisms like holography, or integrating real-time scan data from portable sensors to enable dynamic updates during exploration.
The STS research contextualized the broader implications of these technologies, showing how advances in scanning are not only technical milestones but also catalysts for social and legal change. The project revealed that current legal frameworks are often poorly equipped to handle the visibility and granularity offered by modern subsurface imaging. This presents an opportunity for interdisciplinary collaboration between technologists, lawmakers, and ethicists. Further research should examine how communities and governments negotiate the rights to newly discovered subterranean resources and whether updated property laws or ethical guidelines are emerging in response.
Both projects highlight both the promise and complexity of scanning the underground. They show that technical and social systems must be developed in tandem to ensure these technologies are used ethically and effectively.
