Design of a Thermal Conductivity Measurement Device for Cryogenic Applications; Up, Up and Away: The Botched Privatization of the U.S. Helium Industry

Helium seems like a dream element for researchers in physics and engineering. It is lighter than air, non-flammable, and chemically inert, making it safe and stable to handle. Most importantly, liquid helium is only 4 degrees Kelvin, enabling scientists to reach the low temperatures needed for experiments in superconductivity, quantum computing, and cryogenics. On paper, helium looks like the perfect tool for pushing the boundaries of science. Unfortunately, these same properties also make it extraordinarily difficult to work with. Because helium atoms are so small, even the tiniest leaks can waste valuable gas. Researchers must rely on high-vacuum systems, precision seals, and specialized equipment to contain and control helium, all of which add cost and complexity. On top of that, helium is a non-renewable resource. It cannot be synthesized or manufactured. Instead, helium must be extracted from underground natural gas reserves, where it has accumulated over millions of years. If released into the atmosphere, it cannot be recovered. This fragile supply chain, combined with helium's critical role in research, has driven up its price and created long-standing concerns about availability. Over just the past three decades, helium’s price has multiplied several times over. This raises a central question for scientists and policymakers alike: how can we manage the technical and economic challenges of working with helium?

The technical project aimed to design and manufacture an insert for the UVA Physics Department’s liquid helium refrigerator, used for experiments as low as 1 Kelvin. The goal was to enable research into thermal conductivity of materials at low temperatures, essential for advancing technologies like quantum computing. However, placing samples into the helium refrigerator presents technical challenges. Liquid helium is expensive and susceptible to loss if exposed to heat or atmosphere. Any insert developed must allow researchers to place samples and read data without compromising the vacuum seal or transferring too much heat.
The project began with a design phase where multiple insert concepts were generated and evaluated based on vacuum integrity, thermal isolation, and compatibility with the existing fridge. All designs required electrical feedthroughs (for data collection) and a removable bottom (for easy access), while still maintaining a vacuum. After a design was chosen, CAD was used to plan dimensioning and materials. Parts were sourced, and custom components were fabricated in a machine shop.
After the insert was assembled, it was tested to observe its vacuum performance, cryogenic durability, and data acquisition capabilities. The vacuum test successfully achieved pressures down to 0.000054 millibar, sufficient for experiments. The insert performed well in liquid nitrogen (the helium refrigerator was not operational at the time), and the electrical test showed the insert could provide data. These were all promising results that paved the way for the insert to be used in future research or iterated on in future projects.

The STS research focused on the rising price of helium. This was attributed to a botched privatization that occurred with the Helium Privatization Act of 1996, when the US decided to sell the nation’s helium reserve and encourage private industry to take over. Instead of transferring the market, a combination of economic miscalculations and administrative failures resulted in supply shortages and price spikes. The research question was: why did the Helium Privatization Act of 1996 fail?
The first section of the research summarized the existing conclusions of researchers who had already analyzed the policy. These researchers found that the privatization failed due to poor economic policy. Instead of selling the nation’s reserve at market price, the government sold the helium at a formulaic price to pay off a debt. This flooded the market with cheap helium and pushed private industry out.
The main body of the investigation sought to build on the existing economic analysis by researching the administrative reasons why a policy with such poor economics was passed to begin with. The Congressional Record was utilized as a main source. The first finding was that warnings from the scientific community were ignored by Congress because the sponsor of the bill successfully misconstrued them publicly in front of his fellow representatives. The second finding was that a commissioned study to investigate the impacts of the privatization was undermined by the fact that the policy it analyzed was already well underway since the sponsor of the bill created urgency that allowed it to be pushed through quickly. These two findings worked together to allow poor policy to become a poor privatization.

The overall results of the technical and STS projects were promising. The technical project resulted in a successful research tool, and the STS project uncovered numerous previously-unmentioned administrative failures that contributed to a failed privatization. Future research on the technical side could explore introducing customization that would allow the insert to be used for a variety of experiments. Future research on the STS question could look into alternative privatization models that have succeeded in other industries, with the goal of understanding how to structure privatization that promotes long-term stability.

School of Engineering and Applied Science

Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering

Technical Advisor: Ethan Scott

STS Advisor: Kent Wayland

Technical Team Members: Quinn Early, Jacqueline Harkins, Kyle Holden, Erik McKenna, Grace Milton, Mehki Rippey, Maddy Yates